The first step to choosing a stepper motor is to determine the resolution needed. There is a property within stepper motors that is called “step angle”, which measures the number of degrees the shaft turns. This is based on per input signal from the control circuitry. Some of the most common step angles include 0.9 degrees, 1.8 degrees, and 3.6 degrees. This translates as 400, 200, and 100 steps per rotation and greater the number of steps the greater the precision by the motor. In the cases of projects like CNC machines and robotics a stepper motor with a high degree of precision may be required.

Now that we have learned a bit about the resolution, it is time to move onto the winding scheme of a stepper motor. The two stator wounds that stepper motors can be found in are bipolar or unipolar configuration. The type of stator wound will determine which type of controller is needed. With a unipolar configuration the current flow of the stepper motor needs to be reversed for it to change direction. A bipolar stepper motor does not need to be reversed, instead it provides two windings per pole, one for each direction. Many hobbyist will choose the bipolar configuration since it offers the simpler controls.

Time to talk torque. Once you have determined the torque that will be required for your project you will next need to consult the stepper motor’s specifications. You will need to figure out which stepper motor you need, the matching controller, and if the stepper motor will provide enough holding torque.

The final step is to determine the size, weight, and power requirements for your stepper motor. Since stepper motors are relatively lighter than many other designs they are great for mobile applications. The project may also require a particular voltage and current draw which may alter your stepper motor selection. It’s important to keep in mind that the motor controller will be running at a higher voltage than the motor’s rating.

These steps will make selecting a stepper motor a bit more easy for many. With the different sizes, powers, and brands it can be tough choosing through the many types. This blog will help narrow your stepper motor search.

Mastercam stood out to me as one of the few manufacturing companies that made “Going Green” an issue worth mentioning.  Even the smallest steps taken to minimize the damage done by industry is immensely important in these modern environmental times. With all the harm that manufacturing potentially causes the earth and how much we rely on manufacturing it to keep our economy running it seems more important then ever to bring our attention to this. Society is held together by many things, including technology and manufacturing, and companies like this will be the future of sustainable manufacturing in the coming decades.

What are the environmental efforts being made right now by the manufacturing industry as a whole?

Mark: I don’t know if there is enough information to summarize the efforts made by the manufacturing industry but my guess is that many businesses are at least thinking about these issues and many will act in the next few years in various ways.

Where does Mastercam stand in this context, how do you measure up or exceed expectations and standards for “Going Green”?.

Mark: The expectations are vague and not official unless you’re LEEDS certified so it’s up to the decision makers in each company to decide what level of sustainability to integrate. However I think we measure up pretty well in the green department. We have made both small improvements and large improvements in the way we operate our facility and the way we use energy.

Small ideas include using dishes, glasses and ceramic coffee mugs instead of throw away items. (We have six energy star dishwashers). We compost all of our coffee grounds and food waste so as not to use fossil fuel to haul garbage around for no good reason. In our recent building addition we made sure to use low V.O.C. paint and PVC free carpet to improve our indoor air quality. We’ve installed a fresh air heat exchanger so that we don’t lose valuable heat when bringing in fresh air from outside. All of the windows in the building open if occupants want fresh air when weather permits and a large amount of windows allow us to use more natural light rather than electric lights, which are energy efficient fluorescent lights. All of the lumber in the addition was FSC (Forest Stewardship Council) certified. All of our printing is done on 100% recycled paper with environmental ink and over time we have been printing less and supplying more documents electronically. Many of the employees work from home 2 or 3 days a week to reduce fuel usage.

Like most businesses the real opportunity to make a difference in energy usage is the way a building is heated and cooled. Our 50,000 sq. ft. building is 100% geothermal and does not have a backup system. We have 46 wells that are 300 feet deep that extract either heat or cold out of the ground to heat or cool the building and make our hot water as well. Since the only energy source we use is electricity we decided to install a 72kw photovoltaic system to make some of our own. The solar system is newly installed but it appears we are making about 30% of the electricity that we use. That portion of our electricity will cost the same for about 30 years which is the predicted life of the solar panels.

Do you think technology has the ability to make our society sustainable, what social and scientific steps do you feel are needed to make this happen.

Mark: Yes, I think we have the technology to be 100% sustainable but it will take time and large investments and a change in our living standards. The laws of nature will eventually demand that we all become sustainable in our work and home life and making changes sooner rather than later will allow a smoother and less painful transition. The social steps that need to happen are mostly financial to start with since cost seems to have a way of getting everyone’s attention. Keeping fuel prices high via taxes will keep the pressure on all of us to pay greater attention to the way we live. Lobbying for low fuel costs to keep the economy going is short term thinking and just putting off the inevitable. A small amount of pain now might avoid real problems in the future. This theoretical fuel tax revenue could be used for tax credits and rebates to help fund more homes and businesses that invest in alternative energy. If the U.S. government can find a way to spend over half a trillion dollars to fight a war we can surely find the same amount of money to invest in more clean energy ideas that could actually avoid a war.

You were a “green” company before “green” really existed. What is the history of your company’s progress with its environmental efforts?

Mark: We have always tried to pay attention to our energy and material usage. My depression era parents might have had some influence in this area. We built our first building in 1989 about five miles from our current building and incorporated a geothermal system and passive solar system. Oil deliveries and burning oil in a furnace never really made much sense to me.

Are you noticing any other manufacturing companies going green or being socially responsible? If not, why do you think this is and what would it take to change this trend.

Mark: I know of one local shop that is environmentally aware and is in the process of installing a 32kw photovoltaic system to make some of their electricity. The Connecticut Clean Energy Fund offers a generous rebate for this type of system and I am certain that other shops are acting. Some businesses are motivated to save money and some are motivated to save the environment. Either way works.

What is your view on the peak oil crisis and how it will and has affected industry and manufacturing?

The peak oil crisis and high energy cost spike was a much needed wake up call for all of us. Hopefully the recent drop in oil prices won’t allow us to forget that we need to pay attention and make some changes. I think most people realize that was just a little taste of what’s coming and we need to be ready when cheap energy is no longer available. There are many ways to “be ready”. Take advantage of the energy incentive programs that are available right now. Hire an energy company to audit your operation and then act on at least some of the advice. Use less energy and make some of your own. Almost any business can afford a few solar panels and encourage recycling and shutting the lights off. Do something and then tell people about it, in that order.

Are there any new greening initiatives at your company, underway or being discussed?

We’re not obsessed with green ideas since we still need to spend most of our time operating the business so it stay healthy but we do talk about energy and environmental ideas regularly. Lately we have been monitoring many of our electronic devices to see how much power they used when turned “off”. You might be surprised to learn that many of these devices such as computers, printers, fax machines, cable boxes, dvd players etc. steal your power all the time. A $25 Kill A Watt meter will help you uncover these electric injustices and will surely pay for itself in short order provided you act on your findings. Another current project is to add more computerized controls to our HVAC system to make sure it runs only when necessary. For example, many people forget to adjust the heat or AC when they leave at night or the weekends. A computer can make that adjustment easily and with more consistency than a human and save lots of energy in the process. In other words, an efficient system that isn’t controlled properly isn’t really that efficient.

How does the lax environmental regulations in China and India fit into the global environmental solution?

Well, we all live in the same world and the responsibility level of other countries affects us all. My opinion is that the countries that care about the goal of sustainability and environmental responsibility should first offer technical and financial help to the countries that need it if they can. If the offending countries ignore sincere help then the heat should be turned up and we should reduce or avoid doing business with countries that don’t toe the line. Countries are just a collection of people and policies and sometimes a repercussion needs to be felt before action takes place. When my kids leave the lights on in their room I take the bulbs out of the offending light to send a small message. A country might need a larger message in a similar fashion.

What new and exciting things are happening right now over at Mastercam?

We are continuously working on new ideas for our CAD CAM product called Mastercam as we have been for 25 years and this year has proven to be successful as well. Our cautious but constant growth allows us to serve our customers as they expect now and in the foreseeable future and we will continue our ever present goal of reaching sustainability.

Special Thanks to Mark Summers for taking time to answer some of our questions. To read more about MasterCam’s Green initiatives, check out this article.

With Sinumerik Ctrl-Energy, Siemens has opened up a broad range of solutions for the energy-efficient operation of machine tools, encompassing its Sinamics drive systems and motors, CNC and drive function and PC software solutions. Sinumerik Ctrl-Energy offers energy-efficient solutions covering every aspect of the machine’s lifecycle, starting from machine design and engineering through machine operation and partial or complete retrofit. This makes Sinumerik Ctrl-Energy a broad-based platform for efficient machine management, which will benefit both the machine tool OEM and end-user.
By holding ‘Ctrl E’  on the operator panel, Sinumerik CNCs can provide a fast evaluation of the machine tool’s energy consumption and also manage energy consumption during machine downtime. Using the ‘Ctrl-E Analysis’ function, Sinumerik controls determine both the energy consumption of a drive system and the entire machine. They enable the user to analyze the amount of energy that goes into machining every individual workpiece as the basis for machining strategy improvements. The ‘Ctrl-E Profiles’ function also provides a configuration platform for the management of the machine’s energy saving modes, helping to selectively shut down specific power loads during downtimes.

FREQUENCY CONVERTERS AND ENERGY-SAVING MOTORS — THE INTEGRATED DRIVE TRAIN AS A CORE ELEMENT OF OVERALL ENERGY EFFICIENCY
The Siemens Sinamics S120 drive system permits dynamic energy management in the DC link and makes use of a highly efficient power recovery system, which initially stores generated braking energy in a DC link and optionally feeds it back into the grid rather than allowing the brake resistance to turn it into heat. Sinamics drives and Siemens motors have been designed with a clear focus on energy efficiency aspects. In this manner, integrated drive modules from Siemens reach a high efficiency rating of 97–99 percent.

With an efficiency of up to 94 percent in synchronous motors and up to 91 percent in asynchronous motors, the Siemens motor range also provides a basis for energy-efficient machine designs. In a typical machine tool, auxiliary assemblies such as hydraulic supply systems or cooling and lubrication units account for over half the total energy consumption. Energy-saving 1LE standard asynchronous motors have an efficiency rating of up to 97 percent and offer significant potential for auxiliary assembly improvement. The use of Sinamics G120 frequency converters helps adjust the speed and also the energy consumption of auxiliary systems to the level required at each stage of
the process.

POTENTIAL SAVINGS: CURRENT FLOW REDUCTION AND POWER FACTOR COMPENSATION
Sinamics S120 drive systems permit automatic current flow reduction in asynchronous spindles operating under part-load, avoiding unnecessary heat loss. The reactive power of a machine can be fully compensated using the smart infeed and feedback modules of Sinamics S120 drives, rendering costly and loss-prone reactive power compensation units on the end user’s premises superfluous.

CONTROL CABINETS ALSO HELP EFFICIENCY
Control cabinets, along with the required dissipation of heat, have a significant impact on the energy balance of a machine. Siemens can supply machine tool builders with a complete control cabinet that is designed with optimum energy management in mind. Various cooling options exist, including cold plate and direct fluid cooling, which reduce the need for air-conditioning in the control cabinet and make waste heat produced by the drive systems available elsewhere in the form of process heat.

SIZER — THE CONFIGURATION TOOL FOR ENERGY-EFFICIENT DRIVES
Sizer is the Siemens software tool used to configure energy-efficient drives. It calculates energy consumption and losses incurred with the anticipated load cycles (ramp-up, idle running, running under load, braking, cycle times etc.), as well as the influence of regenerative feedback. This allows the energy efficiency of alternative motor/converter combinations to be evaluated. Using this information, configuration of the feed and main spindle axes can be optimized in line with the process and the anticipated cyclical work flows. Sizer also helps users to avoid over-dimensioning, also in terms of infeed, and to minimize energy consumption.

The majority of those surveyed are from small companies—fewer than 100 employees and less than $10 million a year in revenue. What was found in the survey is that there is a growing optimism toward things and that they are anticipating more demand for their goods.

Two groups, specifically, that emerged in this survey are the “Outperformers” and the “Optimists.” The “Outperformer” is someone who had growth in the second half of 2010 and had anticipated more growth by June 2011. The “Optimists” anticipated growth by June 2010, but experienced a steady or declining growth in the second half of 2010.

Across the entire industrial marketplace, 45 percent of industrial companies are continuing to grow in comparison to 18 percent who aren’t. In every region and every sector of business, these numbers are true.

This growth can be attributed to two things: a heavy reliance on customer retention and service and utilizing their websites and the Internet to market their company.

The IMB revealed that 68% of respondents found customers cutting back or closing shop to be their top challenge. To try and prevent this from being a challenge in the future, 31% of companies are hiring customer service positions.

Demand is up, according to these companies. Thirty-seven percent of respondents anticipated hiring new employees through June 2011. Of those companies, 43% are hiring skilled trade workers and 36% are hiring engineering staff. Demand is, as these numbers would show, up and that is something that will convert into jobs.

Many more companies are realizing the need to move online and market themselves there. By utilizing their own website and a directory such as ThomasNet, companies are finding an increase in revenue growth. Of all IMB respondents, 76 percent reported that their website made a contribution to growth from July to December 2010.

Over half of the “Outperformers” revealed that their website opened up new sources of business which resulted in new revenues.

There are still things that need to be to make the online experience more worthwhile. Buyers are looking for websites that include product comparisons so that purchasing is easier. More importantly, they want to see the prices and product information to ensure that the product they are getting is exactly what they want.

The economy is obviously hurting and companies are hesitant to hire. However, what the IMB shows is that there is growth in the industrial sector and companies are beginning to add people to ensure that they can reach the demand presented to them by their customers.

Focusing on Unique Services

Technology Perspective

The Lone Studer

Excellent Service

Fighting Back

Arguably, no other sphere of manufacturing attracts so many imaginative thinkers – big-picture types who ignore trivia, but are passionate about essential details. They’re innovators like Edvaldo Antonio da Rosa, the founder of a cutting-edge Brazilian aerospace shop with a name that evokes Japan – Toyo Matic.

Located in the southern city of Bragança Paulista, about 85 km north of São Paulo, Toyo Matic serves prominent clients in the Americas, Europe and Asia. According to its customers, Toyo Matic helps put Brazil on the map as a center for modern precision machining. “That’s been our ambition since day one,” says da Rosa, with a smile. “We love to hear people say: ‘You can’t do that in Brazil!’”

The 20-year-old company earned its reputation by routinely doing the nearly impossible. Although it boasts a crew of 75 skilled machinists, operators, engineers and office staff, Toyo Matic’s success reflects the drive and technical talent of its energetic founder. With typical Brazilian humor, associates declare that if da Rosa stepped into a revolving door one space behind them, no one would be surprised to see him exit first!

Not So Simple

As prime aerospace manufactures strive to build with weight-saving monolithic components, the “nearly impossible” has become a common request. When Brazilian aircraft manufacturer Embraer recently combined several hydraulic control components for their popular ERJ-170/190 aircraft into a simpler monolithic unit, it proved to be anything but simple to make.

After eight companies in three countries failed to find a cost-effective way to manufacture the part, Embraer probably started having second thoughts. Fortunately, the design packet found its way back to Brazil – and Toyo Matic. “It’s now the most difficult part we make,” confides da Rosa. “It took many months of testing to develop the procedures.” The heavily milled 7075 aluminum block manifold has deep, intersecting blind holes, some as small as 2 mm diameter. Numerous other bores, recesses and curved surfaces often require 6-micron tolerances, and it requires 160 individual CMM checks to generate the final 61-page inspection report that accompanies each unit!

Toyo Matic solved many of the problems that baffled others by optimizing their tooling to reduce the major causes of inaccuracy: vibration, thermal growth and chip-induced tool runout. “We’ve distilled the manufacturing process down to only six operations,” da Rosa explains, “but we use 112 different tools!”

Finding the “technically sweet” tooling solution was a creative effort well suited to da Rosa’s talents. Before returning home in the 1980s to start Toyo Matic in Brazil, he worked in Toyokawa City, Japan, for the large international tool manufacturer, OSG Corporation. “I suppose,” he notes, “that’s one of our secrets.”

Secrets Too Numerous

Instead of searching tool catalogs for the perfect solution, da Rosa takes a more direct approach. “Whenever I have the time, I always build my own tools,” he explains. “The advantages are just too numerous to ignore.” By making his own, da Rosa can optimize each milling tool’s length-of-cut ratio for each operation – this usually means producing the shortest possible tool to do the job. Standard-reach tools are usable for a wide range of operations, but their longer shafts make them prone to axial runout, deflection and vibration. This is especially true when subjected to the heavy side loads of aggressive pocket milling – the most common scenario in an aerospace shop. The traditional way around these problems is to slow the feedrate. But that lengthens cycle time and can cause new problems, especially in hard materials like titanium, where a reduced feedrate can cause galling and work hardening. Also, with the reduced chip load, heat can quickly build up at the cutting edges, significantly shortening tool life. “Changing to the proper length tool is the better solution,” offers da Rosa, “even though the better solution isn’t always the obvious one.”

What about deep-reach situations where a longer tool is required? Again, da Rosa’s optimized approach pays off. He makes exact-length tools with an integral 40- or 50-taper base that allows direct mounting in the machine spindle. By eliminating the toolholder altogether, he bypasses a major source of runout error. It is this kind of ingenuity motivation toward precision that gives a shop the innovate edge in the CNC business.

Of the 18 manufacturing industries, 17 are reporting growth in April. Several of the fastest growing industries related to machining are:

• #2 – Plastics & Rubber Products
• #3 – Primary Metals
• #5 – Fabricated Metal Products
• #9 – Machinery
• #15 – Miscellaneous Manufacturing

The report was issued today by Norbert J. Ore, CPSM, C.P.M., chair of the Institute for Supply Management™ Manufacturing Business Survey Committee. “The recent trend of rapid growth in the manufacturing sector continued in April as the PMI registered above 60 percent for the fourth consecutive month. The New Orders and Production Indexes continue to drive the PMI, as they have both exceeded 60 percent for five consecutive months. Manufacturing employment appears to have developed significant momentum, as the Employment Index readings for the first four months of 2011 are the highest readings in the last 38 years. Inventory growth also took place in April after two months of destocking; however, the inventory restocking would appear to be necessitated by the strong performance in new orders. While the manufacturing sector is definitely performing above most expectations so far in 2011, manufacturers are experiencing significant cost pressures from commodities and other inputs.”

Technology Showcases

While there have been hundreds of exhibits since the show’s inception, the showcases have highlighted technological products that are available through large-scale manufacturers, including 3-D printers. The 3-D open-source printer exhibited at the show enables its users to participate in personal manufacturing without the costly result. Other 3-D technology showcased has included motion capture display technology, which has been increasingly used in film production. Devices that incorporate LED technology  screens have also been featured at the show.

Creative Tech

Some creative devices featured at the Maker Faire have included electric “muffin mobiles,” and two giant constructed neurons that mimic how brain cells function using lights. Also featured at the show: a “rain swing set” featuring a controller at the top of the swing set that automatically shuts off water when a person swings. Another “maker” invention is a radar speed detector constructed from a Hot Wheels toy.

Robot Devices

DIY devices constructed from recycled items at past shows include robots constructed from old devices, such as computer monitors, that can be operated from remote locations. One attendee from the R2 Builders Club, (a group that builds homemade “Star Wars” inspired R2-D2 androids) demonstrated his personal R2 robot creation, which was constructed from aluminum and featured a compact flash reader that controls the sound. Other past creations include a giant robotic spider, a robotically maneuvered chess game and a robotic giraffe.

To see more show highlights, what the video below:

In order to fabricate a variety of intricate part designs, appliance pieces and tools, manufacturers commonly use cutting technologies including waterjet, laser, and plasma processes. Each of these standard cutting methods employs different application tools; they are not always compatible with the same type of materials. Plasma cutting involves melting material surfaces via a high speed gas process. Another heat-centric process, laser cutting, involves using high temperature to melt materials while a gas jet propels excess materials out of the cuts. Waterjet cutting, which is used as an alternative to both aforementioned processes, does not involve heat treatment and employs jet streams to cut materials.

Here is an overview of the three cutting processes:

The Waterjet Cutting Process and Applications

Waterjet cutting—also known as pure waterjet cutting—was first available for commercial manufacturing use in the 1970s. The process, which is often used instead of plasma and laser technologies, incorporates a high-pressure stream of water that cuts a wide volume of materials. The process is commonly used for replacing milling operations. During the process, an orifice ejects a jet stream at speeds which exceed the speed of sound. This cutting technique is distinguishable for its ability to create precision cuts and is an efficient process for timely jobs that require intricate detail.

Another form of this process, abrasive waterjet cutting, involves incorporating an additional abrasive, such as garnet or aluminum oxide. Once these abrasive materials are added to a small chamber in the cutting tool, harder materials, such as concrete and steel, can be cut. Standard materials compatible with the water process include metal, foam, foods, rubber, plastics and glass, and flammable materials. Common applications associated with this process include parts for the automotive and shoe industry and standard products fabricated with this process include tissue paper and diapers. The process is also distinctive because it does not involve heat treatment and cause deformations as with other cutting technologies.

Some Advantages of Waterjet Cutting

• Detailed, precision cuts result in material savings;
• Minimal material loss in the pure cutting process;
• No thermal distortion;
• Short set-up time;
• Good to use in hazardous zones where heat is restricted;
• May be used for flammable materials;
• Cuts a wide variety of thick and thin materials

Waterjet Cutting Considerations

Although the waterjet cutting process is compatible with a vast amount of materials, there are limitations to consider. Experts note that the pure cutting process should not be applied to diamonds, which are too dense, or tempered glass, which will crack when under pressure. Additionally, the process is not efficient when it is used for fabric or material bundles, as the jet stream loses power after cutting through the first several layers of material. It is also helpful to note that water jet may be slower than the speed of a laser cut component.

Laser Cutting Process and Applications

The laser cutting process is a thermal method that employs energy to melt material. Typically, this process is used to melt material in a localized area, and lasers are able to achieve extremely thin cuts. An assist gas, typically CO2, is transmitted through a beam that treats the material. The gas jet is typically co-axial to the beam and works by blowing the excess metals out of a cut slit. As with flame cutting, laser treatment involves cutting work pieces along lines and curves. The process is sometimes used complementary to CNC/Turret cutting.

Overall, laser cutting is efficient for its precision and the ability to cut numerous materials such as precious and non-ferrous metals, (excluding reflective metals) wood, glass and plastics. The process is often used as an alternative to plasma and oxyfuel cutting, as it is distinctive for accuracy and heat input control and the ability to produce high-quality cuts without additional finishing.

Advantages of Laser Cutting

• Quick set up time;
• Ability to produce thin cut widths;
• Minimal waste clean-up;
• Low distortion rate;
• Applicable to small batches;
• Efficient alternative to mechanical processing

Laser Cutting Considerations

As with all cutting procedures, it is essential to consider safety precautions and wear appropriate gear when processing materials with laser tools. Although lasers work with a number of metals, they are not suitable for reflective materials, such as aluminum and copper alloys. In order to avoid partial burring on thin work pieces, a proper application distance must be applied when processing the material.

The Plasma-Arc Cutting Process

Materials processed with the plasma cutting process are treated with a high-temperature ionized gas arc. The gas content may be oxygen, nitrogen, argon. As the gas passes through nozzle, the restricted opening of the tool causes it to exit at a high speed, enabling it to cut through metals, and an electric arc ionizes the gas. Standard materials that can be treated using this process include aluminum, steel and stainless steel sheets. Typically, this process is used for heavier cuts, including processes such as welding and for cutting aluminum alloys and is commonly used as an alternative to mechanical saw cutting.

Advantages of Plasma-Arc Cutting

• Popular alternative to mechanical oxyfuel cutting;
• CNC is cost effective for thick metals;
• Ideal for cutting thin non-ferrous materials (up to 1 inch);
• Suitable for cutting various expanded materials;
• Efficient for producing non-linear cuts

Plasma Cutting Considerations

It is essential to consider plasma cutting limitations, specifically when compared to other processes. For example, plasma cutting machinery may cost more than other cutting methods such as oxyfuel cutting. In addition, keep in mind that the edges of the processed material may be rough, specifically with thicker materials. Professionals also note that warping may occur when processing intricate parts. Additionally, whereas laser and waterjet cutting may be used to achieve fine precision cuts, the CNC plasma cutting process is most effective for cutting 2D shapes that require less intricate details.

Woodworking Lathes: Woodworking lathes are the oldest variety. All other varieties are descended from these simple lathes. An adjustable horizontal metal rail – the tool rest – between the material and the operator accommodates the positioning of shaping tools, which are usually hand-held. With wood, it is common practice to press and slide sandpaper against the still-spinning object after shaping to smooth the surface made with the metal shaping tools.

Metalworking Lathes: In a metalworking lathe, metal is removed from the workpiece using a hardened cutting tool, which is usually fixed to a solid moveable mounting, either a toolpost or a turret, which is then moved against the workpiece using hand-wheels and/or computer controlled motors. These (cutting) tools come in a wide range of sizes and shapes depending upon their application.

Cue Lathes: Cue lathes function similar to turning and spinning lathes allowing for a perfectly radially-symmetrical cut for billiard cues. They can also be used to refinish cues that have been worn over the years.

Glassworking Lathes: Glassworking lathes are similar in design to other lathes, but differ markedly in how the workpiece is modified. Glassworking lathes slowly rotate a hollow glass vessel over a fixed or variable temperature flame. The source of the flame may be either hand-held, or mounted to a banjo/cross slide that can be moved along the lathe bed. The flame serves to soften the glass being worked, so that the glass in a specific area of the workpiece becomes malleable, and subject to forming either by inflation (“glassblowing”), or by deformation with a heat resistant tool. Such lathes usually have two headstocks with chucks holding the work, arranged so that they both rotate together in unison. Air can be introduced through the headstock chuck spindle for glassblowing. The tools to deform the glass and tubes to blow (inflate) the glass are usually handheld.

Metal Spinning Lathes: In metal spinning, a disk of sheet metal is held perpendicularly to the main axis of the lathe, and tools with polished tips (spoons) are hand held, but levered by hand against fixed posts, to develop large amounts of torque/pressure that deform the spinning sheet of metal. Metal spinning lathes are almost as simple as woodturning lathes (and, at this point, lathes being used for metal spinning almost always are woodworking lathes).

Ornamental turning Lathes: The ornamental turning lathe was developed around the same time as the industrial screw-cutting lathe in the nineteenth century. It was used not for making practical objects, but for decorative work – ornamental turning. By using accessories such as the horizontal and vertical cutting frames, eccentric chuck and elliptical chuck, solids of extraordinary complexity may be produced by various generative procedures.

Reducing Lathe: A reducing lathe is a specialized lathe that is designed with this feature, and which incorporates a mechanism similar to a pantograph, so that when the “reading” end of the arm reads a detail that measures one inch (for example), the cutting end of the arm creates an analogous detail that is (for example) one quarter of an inch.

Rotary Lathes: A lathe in which softwood, like spruce or pine, or hardwood, like birch, logs are turned against a very sharp blade and peeled off in one continuous or semi-continuous roll.

Watchmaker’s Lathe: Watchmakers lathes are delicate but precise metalworking lathes, usually without provision for screw-cutting, and are still used by horologists for work such as the turning of balance shafts. A handheld tool called a graver is often used in preference to a slide mounted tool.